Extracellular vesicles in human fungal pathogens: Biogenesis, functions, and translational applications

초록

Fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as critical mediators of fungal physiology,virulence, and host–pathogen interactions. Since their first description in Cryptococcusneoformans, EVs have been identified in several fungal species and shown to transport abroad repertoire of bioactive cargo. Increasing evidence indicates that fungal EVs participatein multiple biological processes, including cell wall remodeling, stress adaptation, biofilmformation, antifungal resistance, and modulation of host immune responses. Recent advancesin cryo-electron microscopy, multi-omics approaches, and functional genetics havesubstantially expanded our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing EV biogenesis,cargo selection, and extracellular trafficking. These studies have further revealedthat EV cargo loading is a highly regulated process linked to intracellular proteostasis, glycosylation,lipid homeostasis, and environmental adaptation. In parallel, the intrinsic immunogenicityand structural stability of fungal EVs have highlighted their translational potentialas diagnostic biomarkers, vaccine platforms, therapeutic targets, and nanoscale delivery systems. Given the increasing global burden of invasive fungal infections, this review focuseson EVs derived from clinically relevant human fungal pathogens. We summarize recent advancesin EV biogenesis, cargo regulation, their roles in pathogenesis, highlight emergingtranslational applications, and discuss key unresolved questions and future research directionsin the field.

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